Thinking Activity : Lord Tennyson & Browning

Hello Readers!  

Alfred Lord Tennyson and Robert Browning,  the two gigantic poetic personalities of the Victorian period. Both of them were born in the same country and produced of their creative works during the same span of time but their is wide difference between them. Both are the main leading personalities of the Victorian age and they are too known ae the representative poet of that era. Both the poets apply new techniques and styles in poetry writing. But both these poets adopt their own style in their writing. We have task on comparative study of  these two poets. This task given by Vaidehi ma'am. Let's we look this two poet and comparative study of Tennyson and Browning. 

Alfred Tennyson 

Alfred, lord Tennyson, in full Alfred Tennyson, 1st Baron Tennyson of Aldworth and Freshwater, English poet often regarded as the chief representative of the Victorian age in poetry. He was raised to the peerage in 1884. Tennyson was the fourth of 12 children,  born into an old Lincolnshire family. More than any other Victorian era writer, Tennyson has seemed the embodiment of his age, both to his contemporaries and to modern readers. In his own day he was said to be - with Queen Victoria and Prime Minister William  Gladstone - one of the three most famous living persoms,  a reputation no other poet writing in English has ever had.

The 1832 poems was a great step forward poetically and included the first versions of some of Tennyson greatest works, such as "The Lady of shalatto", "The palace of Art", "A Dream of fair women", "The Hesperides", and three wonderful poems conceived in the Pyrenees, "oenone", "The lotos Eaters" and "mariana".

Robert Browning 

Although the early part of Robert Browning's creative life was spent in comparative obscurity,  he has come to be regarded as one of the most important English poets of the Victorian period. His dramatic monologues and the psychological epic The Ring and the Book,  a novel in verse,  have established him as a children's writer is more modest,  resting as it does almost entirely on one poem, "The Piper of Hamelin, "  included almost as an afterthought in Bells and Pomegranites.

Comparative study of Tennyson and Browning :

• Browning focues on the psyches of his frantic characters and tries to look into deep inside of such characters in his writings. Browning tries to understand human nature, religion, and society properly. He studies the innermost psychology of characters. 
• On other hand,  Tennyson draws material from external specific realities, ideas, and objects and tries to express it through ornate language. 
• Another significant difference between poems of Alfred Tennyson's and Robert Browning is in their nature of expression. Browning writing are always energetic but in Tennyson's tone of expression is generally melancholic where he tends to give touch of nostalgia. Their poetic concerns are hardly related. 
• Browning systematically depicts the essence of a character whereas Tennyson gives importance in inducing and endorsing a particular mood. 

Alfred Tennyson and Robert Browning belong to the Victorian age and they occupy a prominent place as a pre-eminent poet of their age. Both the poets apply new techniques and styles in poetry writing. But both these poets adopt their own style in their writing. Browning focuses on the psyche of his frantic characters and tries to look deep inside of such characters in his writings.

 

Browning tries to understand human nature, religion, and society properly. He Studies the innermost psychology of characters. On the other hand, Tennyson Draws material from external specific realities, ideas, and objects and tries to express it through ornate language.

 

Another significant difference between poems of Alfred Tennyson's and RobertBrowning is in their nature of expression. Browning's writings are always energetic but in Tennison's tone of expression is generally melancholic where he tends to give touch of nostalgia. Their poetic concerns are hardly related.

 

Browning systematically depicts the essence of a character whereas Tennyson Gives importance in inducing and endorsing a particular mood.

 

 In terms of the structure of Tennyson’s thoughts on the meaning of poetry, the scholars find a four-part division: poetry as release from emotion, poetry as release from thought, poetry as self-realization, and poetry as mission/prophecy. Canto 95is seen, from this view, as the climax of the poem.

The most conspicuous theme in the poem is, of course, grief. The poet’s emotional

 progression from utter despair to hopefulness fits into the structure observed by the scholars. The early poems are incredibly personal and bleak. Tennyson feels abandoned and lost. He cannot sleep and personifies the cruelty of Sorrow, “Priestess in the vaults ofDeath.” He wonders if poetry is capable of expressing his loss. He wanders by his friend's old house, sick with sadness. Memory is oppressive.

 

Nature herself seems hostile,chaotic. His grief has a concomitant in a lack of religious faith.However, as the poems proceed, the poet begins to grapple with his grief and find ways to move beyond it. He learns, as scholar Joseph Becker writes, to

“experience deeper layers of grief so that he may transcend the limitations of time and space that Hallam’s death represents.” He has learned to love better and embrace his sorrow, which he now personifies as a wife, not a mistress. He learns that Hallam, while once his flesh-and- blood friend whom he misses dearly, is now a transcendent spiritual being, something the human race can aspire to become.

Although Tennyson will never fully recover from the loss of Hallam, he can move forward; the wedding of his other sister establishes this result for him.One of the reasons why the poem is so lauded by critics is its engagement with some contemporary Victorian religious and scientific debates and discourses. Tennyson is dealing not only with his sorrow over Hallam’s death, but also with the lack of religious faith that came with it. He wonders what the point of life is if man’s individual soul is not immortal after death. His emotions vacillate between doubt and faith. He eventually comes to terms with the fact that Hallam may be gone in bodily form, but that he is a perfect spiritual being whose consciousness endures past his death. Becker writes that Tennyson experiences “renewed faith ... that both individual and human survival are predicated on spiritual rather than physical terms.”

Also, significantly, he ruminates over the new scientific findings of the age, which are forerunners of Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution. In particular, Charles Lyell’s

Principles of Geology (1846) undermined the biblical story of creation. Several of the

cantos deal with the ideas of the randomness and brutality of Nature towards man. Canto LVI has the poet anguishing, “So careful of the type? But no. / From scraped cliff and quarried stone / She cries, ‘A thousand types are gone: / I care for nothing, all shall go.’”One of the most famous lines in the English language, “Nature, red in tooth and claw,” is also in this canto.Tennyson grapples with what all of this means in terms of his religious faith as well as in the context of his loss; death is very, very long. The critic William Flesch observes, “Tennyson feels the utter oppressiveness of the emptiness and vacuity of time that Lyell has so devastatingly demonstrated. Within that, he feels the pain of his mourning forHallam, a pain that may be sometimes intermittent but is always at the core of his being.”

Ultimately, though, the fact that love prevails and persists in the vastness of Nature givesTennyson the hope he needs to place his faith in transcendence and salvation once more.The poet never rejected the actual findings of Lyell and others, but he certainly saw themas only partial answers to the mysteries of the universe and believed God still cared very much for human beings and that there was hope for such humans to attain a higher state.

Locksley Hall

This poem is a wonderful creation of Tennyson which was published in 1842.

 

In the "Locksley Hall" the speaker shows "Locksley Hall" as young life and it also embodies the moral aspect, lackness and thirst of new blood. This beautiful piece is nothing but a piece of fancy in which we get the idea about life of the author of the poem.

 

This dramatic monologue poem starts with sadness because of the loss of his much loved cousin Amy.In fact, beyond the surface meaning, the poem contains notions of VictorianAge in which the poet lived. The speaker compares his loss of his cousin with the loss ofVictorian age which has lost its own artistic capability.

 

The speaker traces parental authority in the poem. The consequence of parental authority is uttered through pitiful misconception by making of irritable scenery which replicates the anguish. For example-The speaker displays his depression without expecting offspring. Imagery used, with the reference of Orion and Pleiades, which shine in spring and winter are omitted by speakers' depressed mood.

 

The images which hold the poem are the brutality of time and its rapidity and according to the poet , these elements destroy the relationship between lovers and lovers' creative capability. Here, the symbol, harp which creates harmony is devastated. The loss of love makes comprehend and doubt the speaker about his fate when the father of Amy forces her to marry a guy, whom her father seems perfect.

 

The speaker states that suicide is the only solution to escape from depressive condition.The speaker states that suicide is the only solution to escape from depressive condition.His thoughtfulness drives from individual to society. To him the harm of the effect indicates one aspect of social injustice. The speaker's consciousness over the social awareness offers him a new dream of the future.

 

At the end of the poem, the speaker's mind remains with psychological problems through self-confidence which also indicates social progress that means spring is not so far away.

 

Alfred Tennyson and Robert Browning belong to the Victorian age and they occupy a prominent place as a pre-eminent poet of their age. Both the poets apply new techniques and styles in poetry writing. But both these poets adopt their own style in their writing. Browning focuses on the psyche of his frantic characters and tries to look deep inside of such characters in his writings.

 

Browning tries to understand human nature, religion, and society properly. He Studies the innermost psychology of characters. On the other hand, Tennyson Draws material from external specific realities, ideas, and objects and tries to express it through ornate language.

 

Another significant difference between poems of Alfred Tennyson's and RobertBrowning is in their nature of expression. Browning's writings are always energetic but in Tennison's tone of expression is generally melancholic where he tends to give touch of nostalgia. Their poetic concerns are hardly related.

 

Browning systematically depicts the essence of a character whereas Tennyson Gives importance in inducing and endorsing a particular mood.

 

Tennyson’s poetry is essentially lyrical; thereby his dramatic monologues seem

half-

hearted attempts when compared to Browning’s.

 

In Tennyson we see the dramatic monologues used quite differently and the same characteristics found in his lyrical poetry are present in his dramatic monologues.

“St. Simeon Stylites” is Tennyson’s most Browningesque poem in

 the sense of irony.

 

We can easily perceive that Simeon is eluding himself as being the martyr who suffers to achieve sainthood but his suffering is self-inflicted and he is trying to convince us with false humility while his spiritual pride is clearly evident in his words.

 

 Nevertheless, St. Simon Stylites is character

er who is very similar to Tennyson’s

other characters. Like Marianna he is an isolated figure in a confined space leading a life which is no life. The poem is again about the penultimate moment ofSt. Simeon who is sitting on a pillar waiting for his reward of sainthood. In Contrast, we do not find these sorts of similarities in Browning.

 

Likewise, the dramatic situations of Tennyson’s “Ulysses” and “Tithonus”although fascinating in their own right do not exhibit Browning’s ability to inhabit

different personas and refine himself out of existence.

 

Browning’s poetry is his attempt to understand human nature, religion, and

society. In all his dramatic monologues we encounter different personas that provide us with different points of views and the reader is ultimately asked to elicit his own conclusion

s. For example, in “Fra Lippo Lippi” Browning

satirizes the essentially corrupt relationship between the Italian Renaissance tradition of art.

Tennyson and browning are important Victorian poets, they differ in background and Style. Browning is considered the more innovative  of the two poeta due to his often unusual syntax,  but actually under his mellifluous and fluid surface style, Tennyson is perhaps even more radically innovative. Both poets wrote dramatic monologues.


Comparative study between Charles Dickens and George Eliot :

Charles Dickens and George Eliot both are great Victorian writer. They both famous for their writing. In the novel , Oliver Twist and Middlemarch, Charles Dickens and George Eliot have presented the Victorian Society by one or another way. Both novel were written in the Victorian age. In Oliver Twist, major themes is a poverty, orphanhood, starvation, child labouring where as in the middlemarch major themes is a marriage, vocation ,desire for own identity, severity of the society. These are themes of both texts which govern the narrative of both novels.

We can see that the autobiographical element in works of Eliot and Dickens. Oliver Twist and middlemarch both autobiographical novel. In Oliver Twist Charles Dickens describe the wretched condition of children who work in the work house. It is Dickens 's own experience of working in the shoe-polish factory. In middlemarch Eliot presented her novel in a new way rather than stereotypical fantasies of the conventional romance fiction.

Both novelist have depicted the Victorian society in their novels.

Thinking Activity : Derrida & Deconstruction

Hello Readers! 

This is my academic task on thanking activity on Derrida and deconstruction. Task given by Dr. Dilip Barad head of English department Mkb university. Click here for know more about this task. 

Jacques Derrida 

Jacques Derrida was french philosopher who sits at the forefront of post-structuralism, is the father of deconstruction. Derrida was the founder of "deconstruction " a way of criticizing not only both literary and philosophical text but also political institution. Although Derrida at times expressed regret concerning the fate of the word 'deconstruction' it popularity indicates the wide ranging influence of his thought , in philosophy,  in literary criticism and theory,  in art and,  in political theory. 

Deconstruction :

Deconstruction is an approach to understand the relationship between text and meaning. It was originated by the philosopher Jacques Derrida whose approach consisted of conducting readings of texts looking for things that run counter to its intended meaning or structural unity. The purpose of deconstruction is to show that the usage of language in a  given text,  and language as a whole,  are irreducibly complex,  unstable, or impossible.  Throughout his readings, Derrida hoped to show deconstruction at work. 

In the criticism of literature deconstruction is a theory and practice of reading which questions and claims to 'subvert' or 'undermine' the assumption that the system of language provides ground that are adequate to establish the boundaries the coherence or unity. And determinat meaning of literary tex. 

Deconstruction is not destructive activity,  but it is an inquiry into the foundations of everything. Deconstruction is not totally negative term. By it does not mean to destructive activity or breaking down anytime. Darrida says that  deconstruction is not destructive activity but an inquiry into the foundations causes of intellectual system. 

Advertisement :  सारे मेल  धोडालो घड़ी डिटर्जेंट के साथ। 

Above advertisement is about the Ghadi Detergent powder. People have a construct mind set that the man working on office and women doing house work. In this advertisement we can see that the man was working in house made a tea etc.. and the women was working of her office work. When her parents see these her mother told his husbund that ' ઇસ જમાનેમે કહા મીલતે હે નેક દામાદ'. But when she see that her son helps his wife then her opinion is changed what she said?  She says her son that ' यही सीखााया मेने तुजे' what she meant to say this. When another Son help your doughter for hous works then is good but when your son help his wife then it's problematic why? Tise kind of thing also happens around us.  At the end of the advertisement she help her and change her mind set. 

Thinking Activity : Structuralism

Hello Readers!

This blog is my academic task thinking activity on Structuralism. We know that what is structuralism and what is structuralist critic do. After understanding the concept of Structuralism  We have task on structuralism. Being a structuralist critic, how would you analyse literary text or TV serial or film? We have task that select any image or TV serial or Film or literary text or advertisement and apply structuralist method. This thinking activity given by Dr. Dilip Barad head of English department MKB university. 

• Gerard Genette 

Gerard Genette was well known literary critic and  french literary theorists after Roland Barthes. Gebette is primarily associated with structuralism, especially for reintroducing a new rhetorical vocabulary into literary criticism term as narratology,  trope and metonymy etc. Gerard Genette puts forward structuralist criticism as a literary criticism.

• What is Structuralism 

Structuralism as a method is peculiarly imitable to literary criticism which is a discourse upon a discourse discourse. Literary criticism in that it is meta-linguistic in character  and comes into being/ existence as meta-literature, that is to say , 'a literature of which literature is the imposed object'. That is , it is literature written to explain literature and language used in it to explain the role of language in literature. 

In Genette's words, ' if the writer quotations the universe, the critic quotations literature, that is to say, the universe of signs. 

Gerard Genette writes at the outset in his essay "Structuralism and Literary criticism" that methodes developed for the study of one discipline could be satisfactorily applied to the study of other discipline as well. This is what he calls "intellectual bricolage", borrowing a term form Claude Levi-Strauss. This is precisely so, so far as structuralism is concerned. 

• Important concepts in Genette's narratology  

Genette's narratology is derived from Narrative Discourse; An Essay in Method. Below are the five main concepts used by Genette in Narrative Discourse; An Essay in Method. They are primarily used to look at the syntax of narratives, rather than to perform an interpretation of them. 

1. Order :

 Say a story is as follows;

 Event 1. a murder occurs; 

 Event 2 . then the circumstances of the murder are reveals to a detective, 

Event 3.  Finally the murderer is caught.

Arranged chronologically the events run. Arranged in the text they may run discovery, flashback and resolution. 

I try to apply these type of narrative discourse in TV serials. Generally we can see that C.I.D , dedective didi or Savdhan India TV serials following above three type of chronological events. C.I.D or Savdhan India began with the discovery of murder or any crime then event go to the flashback that what and how its happens then resolution. But some time this proceese of narrative is changed some time its began with flashback than the discovery.  This accounts for the ' obvious' effects the reader will recognise, such as flashback. It also deals with the structure of narratives on a more systematic basis.

The Black Cat : By Edger Allan Poe 

In this story we can see that above three type of chronological events. The narrator killed his wife and his beloved cat. The police discover the murderer and the end of the story murderer reviled. So we can apply this three type of narrative discourse in this story.

2. Frequency 

The separation between an event and its narration allows several possibilities. An event can be occured once and narrated once. An events can be occured once and be narrated many times.

3. Duration 

The separation between an event and its narration means that there is discourse time and narrative time.These are the two main elements of duration. First is ten years passed but a short narrative time it mean they narrated in few seconds.

For example Khoob Ladi Mardaani - Jhansi Ki Rani. This is Indian historical drama television series based on the life of Lakshmi Bai , The rani of jhansi. The story narrated many time left few years.

4. Voice 

Voice is concerned with who narrates, and from where. This can be split four ways.

Where the narration is form

• Intra-diegetic: inside the text.
• Extra-diegetic : outside the text.

Is the narrator a character in the story?

• Hetero-diegetic: The narrator is not a character in the story.

• Homo-diegetic: The narrator is a character in the story.

for example from literary text :

1. Blow up with the ship

Blow up with ship is a short story by 19th century writer Wilkie Collins. It is a thriller story. We can see that the Homo-diegetic narration in this story. In these story narrator himself tells story and he is character in these story. The story is narrated in first person. The narrator was sent to sea when still a boy and became a mate at the of twenty five. The setting is sea during the year 1818.

2. The Black Cat 

The Black Cat is a short story by American writer Edgar Allan Poe. The story is presented as a first-person narrative using an unreliable narrator. The narrator tells story and he is also character in the story.

Example from movie :

Baahubali : The Beginning and Baahubali 2 The conclusion

Baahubali is a 2015 Indian epicaction film directed by S.S.Rajamouli. The film produced by Shobu Yarlagadda and Prasad Devineni. The first of two cinematic parts, the film follows sivdu, an adventurous young man who helps his love , a rebellious warrior intending to rescue the former queen of Mahishmati. In this process, he learns of his true identity as the heir to the throne of mahishmati, the son of Amarendra Baahubali, whoes tale is narrated to him by kattappa reveals that he was the one who killed him. The reason behind this is  explained in the Baahubali 2 : The conclusion. So we can say that the second part of Baahubali is narrated by Kattappa and he himself character in the movie. Kattappa relates this story to baahubali, but when asked about Amarendra baahubali current whereabouts, a tearful kattappa reveals that Amaendra baahubali is dead , and that he is the one who killed him.

5. Mood 

Genette said narrative mood is dependent on the distance and perspective of the narrator, and like music, narrative mood has predominant patterns. It is related to voice.

Genette concept of structuralism is different from other and his concept is most including all narrative techniques.


Thank you.....  

Thinking Activity : Northrop Frye

Hello Readers! 

This blog is about my academic task on Northrop Frye. In our syllabus we have learned about the Northrop Frye's essay " Archetypes of Literature ". This thinking Activity given by Dr. Dilip Barad head of English department. Click here about this  Activity. 

Northrop Frye  : 

Northrop Frye was well known critic. His full name Herman Northrop Frye. He  was Canadian educator and literary critic who wrote much on Canadian literature and culture and became best known as one of the most important literary theorists of the 20th century. 

The present essay " Archetypes of literature "is taken from the book. In the essay Frye critically analysis literature against the backdrop of rituals and myth. He interprets literature in the light of various rituals and myths. Frye has divided  the easy into three parts. 

• The First deals with the concept of archetypal criticism. 
• The second of part throws light on the inductive method of analysis of a text. 
• The third part focuses on the deductive method of analysis. All the method fall under  structural criticism. 

Q - 1 : What is Archetypal Criticism?  What does the archetypal critic do? 

Archetypal literary criticism is a type of critical theory. The term archetype means an original idea or pattern of something of which others are copies. In the literary criticism the term archetype denotes recurrent narratives designs, patterns of action, character -types, themes, and images which are identifiable in a wide variety of works of literature as well as in myth dreams and even social rituals. Which are used in literary compositions and it's help us to shaping individual's perspective towards literary texts. 

Archetypal critic argue that archetypes determine the form and function of literary works,  that a text's meaning is shaped by cultural and psychological myths.. Archetypal critic find new criticism too animistic in ignoring inter textual elements and in approaching the text as if it existed in a vacuum. 

Q - 2 what is Frye trying prove by giving an analogy of 'physics to nature ' and 'Criticism to literature? 

Northrop Frye has given a unique idea of Archetypal Criticism by comparing the human emotions or human characteristics with the cycle of seasons. physics is the study of nature, criticism,  is the study of literature. Frye says that physics is an organized body of knowledge about nature. But generally students say that they are learning physics not nature. Physics is deep study of nature. Science explores nature and different branches of science explore different aspects of nature. Physics is a  branch of science,  which explores matter and natural forces of the universe. Literary criticism, today, has become systematic in could be considered as a science. Based on this concept, a work of literature may be critically evaluated, says Northrop Frye.

Q - 3 : Share your views of criticism as an organized body of knowledge. Mention relation of literature with history and philosophy. 

Literature is a part of humanities and humanities include philosophy and history also. These two branches of knowledge provide a kind of pattern for understanding literature. Philosophy and history are two major tools for interpretation of literature and archetypal criticism is based on philosophy and history of a people. Archetypal criticism is meaningful criticism.

Q - 4 : Briefly explain inductive method with illustration of Shakespeare's  Hamlet Grave Digger's scenes. 

Frye contends that structural criticism will help a reader in understanding a text, and in his analysis,  he proceeds inductively. That is,  from particular truths in a work,  he draws forth general truths.

Shakespeare's "Hamlet" gravedigger scene is best example of study of inductive method. In this scene we can see that gravedigger was not effected by the death of others because it is  their rutin work. They have romanticized relationship with their jobs. They introduced different skull with person and their works. It is manifestation of the absolute integrity of gravedigger. We came to general observation that the corruption in society.

Owing to jealousy, Othello in the Shakespeare play, inflicts upon himself affliction and this is the particular truth of the drama from which the reader learns the general truth of life that jealousy is always destructive. This is called the inductive method of analysis under structural criticism.

Q - 5 : Briefly explain deductive method with reference to analogy to music, painting, rhythm and pattern. 

An archetypal critic, under the deductive method of analysis, proceeds to establish the meaning of a work from the general truth to the particular truth. Literature is like a music and painting. Rhythm is an essential characteristic of music and in painting, pattern is the chief virtue. Rhythm in music is temporal and pattern in painting is spatial. In literature both rhythm and pattern are recurrence rhythm means the narrative and the narrative presents all the events and episodes as a sequence and hastens action. Pattern in literature signifies it's verbal structure and conveys a meaning. In producing the intended artistic effect,  a work of literature should have both rhythm and pattern. Narrative and meaning.

• Literary Criticism and Religion

There is a close relationship between literary criticism and religion. In his analysis, a literary critic considers God  as an archetype man who is portrayed as a hero in a work. God is a character in the story of Paradise Lost or The Bible,  and the critic deals with him and considers him only as a human character. Criticism does not deal with any actuality,  but with what is conceivable and possible.

Similarly religion is not associated with scientific actuality,  but with how things look like. Literary criticism work on cinceivability. Likewise,  religion function on conceivability. There can be no  place for scientific actuality in both,  but what,  is conceived is accepted by all.  Both in religion and literary criticism , an epiphany is at work. It is a revelation of god or truth and it is a profound insight. It originated from the subconscious, from the dreams. In human life there is a cycle of waking and dreaming and in nature also,  it could be seen and it is the cycle of light and darkness. Waking and dreaming,  and light and darkness are two antithetic factors, which bring about epiphany in a person.  It is during the day that man develops fear and frustration,  and he  resolves to achieve.  It is the  antithesis,  which resolves the problems and misunderstanding of man  and makes him perceive truth both in religion and literary criticism.


Thank you...... 

Cultural Studies : Workshop by Dr. Kalyani Vallath

Hello Readers! 

This blog is about workshop on cultural studies by kalyani vallath.


Workshops  : Cultural Studies  by Kalyani  Vallath

27 December 2019 we have attended workshop on cultural studies at department of English Maharaja krishanakumarsinhji bhavnagar University. One day workshop organized by Dr. Dilip Barad head of English department. Dr. Kalyani Vallath is highly passionate teacher from Trivandrum, Kerala. She taught us about cultural studies, various theories and theorist. Her way of teaching is really appreciate. She has marvelous voice and personality. 

Kalyani ma'am gave many knowledge about cultural studies and gave many examples. Cultural studies is very difficult subject but she taught us in very easily and  interesting way.  She taught us, 

##An introduction of Cultural Studies##

• What is Cultural Studies 
• The Beginning of Cultural studies 
• Frankfurt School 
• Institute for Social Research. Of Frankfurt 
• Critical Theory 
• Hegelian Dialectical method 
• Dialectic of Enlightenment 
• What is Enlightenment 
• Why has Enlightenment failed 
• Cultural industry
• New left in Britain 
• Center for contemporary Cultural Studies 
• ##The Pioneers ##
• Richard Hoggart(1918-2014)
• E. P. Thompson 
• Raymond William 
•  Cultural materialism 
• ##Stuart Hall (1932-2014)##
• Mode of communication 
• Encoding and Decoding 
• Cultural Representation 
• ##Circuit of Cultural##
• Production 
• Consumption 
• Identity 
• Regulation
• Signification 
• ##Major Influence##
• Michel Foucault 
• Archeology and Genealogy 
• Power /knowledge 
• Episteme and Dispositif
• Discipline% and Training of Docile bodies 
• Pierre Bourdieu 
• Cultural intermediaries 
• Black Atlantic 
• Edward Soja 
• Popular culture studies 
• Subculture studies 

So,  cultural studies is very huge topic. Kalyani ma'am very interestingly taught us everything about cultural studies. We all enjoyed her lecture. After attended workshop we have task on cultural studies..

Q - 1  What is your understanding about the concept of Cultural Studies?

Cultural study is about the interdisciplinary study. Cultural studies is relates to larger community or society. India is the best place for talking about culture , because India has huge community. Cultural studies is an innovative interdisciplinary field of research and teaching that investigates the ways in which "culture" creates and transforms individual experiences, everyday life, social relations and power. People belongs to different culture. Cultural studies is study about politics, history, media, philosophy, economics, social realities etc.. When we learn about culture we came to know that how culture transforms individual experiences, social realities and power relation. Kalyani ma'am  explained it in her own individual experience. Cultural studies developed as a reaction against Liberal humanism and orthodox Marxism. Culture has both a material and a metaphysical substance. The material is what is found in an archaeological site or simply observed in the material world in which people.It is metaphysical in the sense that there is a uniqe set of purposeful meanings for carrying out and achieving the members of the social system.

Q - 2 How would you explain a layman about Cultural studies

According to Matthew Arnold, cultural studies is about perfection. He talk about high culture. Cultural study is against of Arnold and F.R. Levis. Cultural study is concern with ordinary people .The different groups may have different cultures.

Q - 3 If you are asked in interview to teach cultural studies. How  would you introduced it? 

If l have asked how to introduce cultural studies  then my answer is that cultural studies is an discipline which combines political economy, communication, sociology, social theory,  literary theory,  media theory,  film studies,  cultural anthropology philosophy,  art history, criticism etc.  Cultural studies is an innovative interdisciplinary field of teaching that investigates the ways in which culture creates and transforms individual experiences, everyday life,  social relations and power.


Q -4. How many examples from the sessions were so catch that you will never forgot?

There are many example given by kalyani ma'am during session.Cultural studies transform individual experiences.She gave her own example. When she is traveling to abroad. She tested different food and her expression  I never forgotten.

We watch some videos during session. We watch short video of the movie 'Charlie Chaplin'. One since we can see that in machinal culture people has no value, labor has no value. This is express man vs machinal culture. There are no relationship. How machine are devalue of man.


Overall workshop we have learn lots of things and its very helpful us to appear in exam. Thanks to Dr. Kalyani ma'am to taught us  about cultural studies. Thanks to Dilip barad sir for organised this workshop.

Sunday Reading : Shashi Tharoor's An Era of Darkness

Hello Readers! 

The famous and prestigious Sahitya Akademi Awards for 2019 are announced.  The Award in English language category is awarded in "Creative non-Fiction" category to Shashi Tharoor's An Era of Darkness. Our task is to watch interviews of Shashi Tharoor on this blog given by Dilip Barad Sir and write our response to it. 

•  Shashi Tharoor 

Shashi Tharoor is an Indian politician, writer and a former international diplomat. Shashi Tharoor was born on 9 March 1956 in London, United Kingdom to Chandran Tharoor and Sulekha menon, a malayali couple hailing from mangalore, karnataka. He revived Sahitya Akademi award 2019  for his non-fiction work An Era of  Darkness.

• An Era of Darkness :

Shashi  Tharoor argues that British rules had no redeeming features. 

Shashi Tharoor latest,  An Era of Darkness,  is one breathless read.  In it, he aggregates all the arrangements required to establish that British Colonial rules was an awful experience for Indians and he does so with a consummate debater's skill. His book is, in fact, an expanded take on British exploitation of India that famously carried the day for Tharoor in an Oxford debate not too long ago. Tharoor told that how the Britishers rules on India. 

Watching interview of Shashi Tharoor. Click here. 

• Speech at Oxford Union 
• Looking Back at the British Raj in India : The university of Edinburgh 
• Exclusive interview by karan Thapar on his Book "An Era of Darkness "
• About British colonialism in India in his new book 'An Era of Darkness'.

1. Shashi Tharoor Speech at Oxford Union :

Shashi Tharoor told about the British rules in India. We can to know that how Britishers crualy rules on India.

Development of Railway In India :

Before I listen speech of shashi Tharoor I believe that Railways or rode made by Britishers for development of India. But when I listen Tharoor's speech I came to know that British made railway or rode for their own benefits. Railway was built to serve British. They were designed to carry raw materials from into spot shift to Britain and the fact is Indian, American and other colonial public they needs were incidental transportation they demands for transport. Instead in fact India railway was built the massive insetive offer by Britain .So that how Britishers made railway for their own benefit to transport many things in British. 

Exclusive interview  Dr. Shashi Tharoor on his Book "An Era of Darkness" The British Empire in India. 

In his book he said about injustice. All the arrangements is against of the British Empire in India. He told about partition of Hindu and Muslim. Hindu and Muslim was divided by Britishers. Britishian create partition Bengal. Deliberately they want to separate Muslim majority part of bangol and makes different kind of politics them.  The Britishers made systematic effort to separate between to community Hindus and Muslim. The binary of Hindus and Muslim was created by the British. 

• Five ways we would've been better off if we hadn't been colonised. 

1. The British wrecked our industries 
2. Colonial Rule worsened poverty and landlessness
3. Famines were 'British induced '
4. Partition 
5. Colonisation of The Indian mind. 

In this video he thiks so many counterfactual is always impossible to prove because what happened happened but the fact is that we had the nucleus mean certainly as he has demonstrated in the book three industries of ours which were radio doing very well .

1. Textiles 

2. Steel and

3. Shipbuilding

 

All this three were systematically and deliberately targeted destroyed and dismantled. The British now the counters argument that give us all modern technology would have overtaken all left behind anyway and he say because we would have found ways of coping. If we were free but you were the ones making the rules so textiles if you make it impossible to ship Indian textiles to other countries by posing imposing punitive tariffs and ship into English goods to India by having  

Practically no tariffs at all he meant no free country would have tolerated that but in practice naturally you destroy. 

Thank you...

Thinking Activity : John Keats

Hello Readers!

In our syllabus we have paper of Romantic Literature in which one unit about John Keats and we learned about his poem. His poem about death.So, we have task about how Death is generally dealt by other writes in literature. First we discuss about john Keats and his poem on death and than we discusses about   how death is generally dealt by other writers.Task given by Dr.  Hinama'am zala professor of English department. 

When we listen the word "Death" We afraid that something wrong happen with us and our beloved person. People don't want listen and talk about death.   Death is reality cycle  of our life.We know that one day death come than why we feel fear about  death?  people afraid about death.we are afraid about our beloved death whome we love. Death one time came in our life.  Why we are not accept reality of life. People don't want to talk about death. But we can see that in literature writers have some kind of fascination towards death. In various form of literature we can see that many writer use theme of death. Death is most favourite and beloved subject for writer. Death is law of nature we can not disturb it, if we try to do it then it lead us to our destruction

Literary descriptions of death are thus not merely preoccupied with the painful scene of dying or individual loss, but the concept of death can be understood more widely as a site of many projections and fantasies and as metaphor of many social issues. Literature can also discuss death through metaphors and characterisation. Literature can provide us with ways of approaching death and imagination it from different perspectives. Some literary genres (elegies) are intentionally written as reactions to the loss of a loved object or a person, and literature can act as consolation to those who are suffering. In literature death exists at many levels: it is part of the narrations, imagery, metaphors and character traits: it reaches outside literature's own realm and discusses death-related social issues and emotions that are recognisable for the reader.   

• John Keats 

John Keats was one of the famous romantic poet who devoted his short life to the perfection of a poetry marked by vivid imagery, great sensuous appeal, and an attempt to express a philosophy through classical legend. John Keats was born in London , the eldest of Thomas and Frances Jennings Keats's four children. He was one of the most remarkable English poet. He published only fifty - four poems. Keats has made his mark as a narrative poet, a sonneteer, an a writer of narrative poems of great merit.The poem of Keats are flooded with sensuousness. Keats Ode to a Nightingale is considered one of the finest odes in English literature.  

• Ode To A Nightingale 

Ode To A Nightingale , the poet attempt to free the "weariness, the fever, and the fret," of our tragic existence, "where youth grows  pale, and spectre-thin, and dies," first through an ecstasy of intoxication and then "on the view less wings of poesy," the mind attempting both to transcend  life and remain aware of itself becomes lost in a dark wild, an "embalmed darkness" of-fleeting sensation that suggests not escape but its very opposite, death. But the nightingale - or ,rather , its song as the imagination elaborates upon it- is immortal, and in "ancient days" belonged to a world of enchantment . It is the same song , "that oft-times hath/charm'd magic casements, opening on the foam / of perilous seas, in faery lands forlorn forlorn shocking the poet into awareness. The beauty of an imagined "long ago" suggested by this word turns by a sad pun into a remarkable moment of pained self-consciousness. The bird flies off, and " the fancy cannot cheat so well/As she is fam'd to do , deceiving elf./../was it a vision or a waking dream?/Fled is  that music:-Do I wake or sleep?" The poem ends by dismantling its own illusion.

• A Dream Of Death : - By William Butler Yeats. 

In this poem narrated is about to recount a dream. By using the word strange to specify how the death took place in a  "Strange Place ", Yeats stresses the importance of begging if he were comfortable with the idea of a foreign land, the word strange would not be utilized. Yeats initially shields the importance of the person who has died, but as the poem progress, the reader becomes aware that the narrator is dreaming about someone who he loves dearly. 

Yeats wrote this poem about the woman he loved Maud Gonne. At the time this poem was written, she was traveling to France. Yeats was afraid trip as she was predisposed to illness. The historic context shows how poem was personal to Yeats; however, the themes are important with or without historic context.

• Shakespeare's King Lear 

Tragedy typically represents a meaningful and dramatic grand scale death that prolongs the scene of dying,  as is the case in Shakespeare's King Lear The plot of classical, tragedy is based on suffering and the drama often ends in the premature death of the tragic hero combined with the development of some king of self-recognition. In tragedy the meaningful existence of the hero is paradoxically created by his death. Literature offers insights into death, dying and morality in multiple ways. 

We have no reliable information about death as an experience, and this emphasizes Death's nature as a  secret and mysterious event. Death is bitter truth of human life.  Generally people afraid about death. But in literature death is most interesting and beloved topic of writers. 

                       Thank you............ 

Indian Poetics : Professor Vinod Joshi's expert lecture.

Hello Readers! 

We have expert lecture of one of the famous Indian poet Vinod Joshi on Indian Poetics. Thanks to Dilip Barad Sir for organised this wonderful expert lecture. Based on his lecture we have task to summarise his lecture.

Indian Poetic 

Indian poetic theory is very old and most interesting literary as well as philosophical and cultural discussion of Indian or better to say Sanskrit literature. Sanskrit is regarded as Dev-vani,  not all folk can possess the ability to understand and read Sanskrit literature. Earlier, great Sanskrit scholars had expertise in describing things that are usually hard to observe in nature. The prosperous tradition of Indian aesthetics is said to have begun from Bharat Muni in and around 1st century. As there is Western Criticism  and can be called ' Poetics 'as a proper canon, similarly, in Sanskrit there is a particular canon of Sanskrit criticism which is usually bannered as Kavya Mimansa  and which acts like an umbrella for various schools developed by scholarly thinkers. The various schools or theories in Indian Aesthetics. 

we have noted that Indian literary theories carry out a sustained analysis of how meaning is constituted in language , of forms and devices, of HOW. Beauty is assumed to consist in alamkaratva, the craft or rhetoric of composition. We shall now briefly describe the major theories. 

               સંસ્કૃત  સાહિત્યશાસ્ત્રીઓએ કાવ્યના અનેક વિષયોની ચર્ચા કરી છે અને સૂક્ષ્મમાં સુક્ષ્મ બાબતને પામવાનો પ્રયત્ન તેમના થકી થયો છે. સંસ્કૃત કાવ્ય શાસ્ત્રીઓ દ્વારા કાવ્યને कविताकामिनी  એવું  બિરુદ આપવામાં આવ્યું છે આ કાવ્ય ના સ્વરૂપ વિશે અનેક ચિંતાનો રજુ થયેલા છે. કાવયને જીવંતતા અપનારું કોઈ તત્વ હોવું જોઈએ અને તે ક્યું? તે વિશે અનેક મતમતાતરો જોવા મળે છે. સાહિત્ય શાસ્ત્રમાં કેટલાય વિદ્વાનોએ રસ, અલંકાર આદિન કાવ્યના આત્મા તરીકે સ્વીકાર્યા છે. સાહિત્યશાસ્ત્રમાં આવા 6 સાંપ્રદાયો સાંપ્રદાયો અસ્તિત્વમાં છે.

૧.રસ  સંપ્રદાય.                2. અલંકાર સંપ્રદાય

3. રીતિ સંપ્રદાય.                4. વક્રોક્તિ સંપ્રદાય

5. ध्वनि સંપ્રદાય.               6. ઓચિંત્ય સંપ્રદાય

SCHOOL	Thinkers	Texts
Rasa	Bharara      Dhanika Dhananjaya	Natyasastra. Dasarupaka.
Alankar	Bhamaha       Dandin       Udhata       Rudrata	Kavyalankara. Kavyadarsa. Kavyalankarasarasamgraha Kavyalankara.
Riti	Vamana	KavyalankaraKavyalankarasutra.
Dhvani	Anandavardhana       Abhinavagupta       Mahimabhatta	Dhvanyaloka. Abhinavabharati and Locana. Vayaktiviveka.
vakrokti	Kuntaka	Vakroktijivita.
Guna - Dosa	Dandin       Also        Bhamaha	Kavyadarsa. KavyalamkaraAucityavicaracara.
Aucitya	Ksemendra

1. રસ સંપ્રદાય :

રસને જ કાવ્યનો આત્મા  માંનનારી પરંપરાને રસ સંપ્રદાય તરીકે ઓળખવામાં આવે છે. આચાર્ય ભરતમુનિ તેના પુરસ્કર્તા છે. તેમને નાટ્યશાસ્ત્ર નામના ગ્રંથ ના છઠ્ઠા અધ્યાયમાં રસની ચર્ચા કરી છે. આ રસ સિદ્ધાંત તેમને માત્ર નાટ્ય માટે જ આપ્યો એવું નથી પરંતુ રૂપક અનુસાર સંપૂર્ણ કાવ્યશાસ્ત્રી ની  ચર્ચા કરી છે. તેઓ કહે છે કે  रसप्राणों ही नाट्यविधि।એટલે કે રસ એ જ કાવ્યનું પ્રાણતત્ત્વ છે ભરતમુનિ 8 રસને સ્વીકારે છે નવ રસની સ્વીકૃતિ ભરતમુનિ પછી  કરવામાં આવી છે. ભરતમુનિ નાટ્યમાં શાંતરસ ને સ્વીકારતા નથી. ભરતમુનિ રસ ને વ્યાખ્યાયિત કરતાં કહે છે કે

 विગभवानुभावव्यभिचारीसंयोगद रसनिष्पत्तिः।

 ભરતમુનિનુ આ સૂત્ર સાહિત્ય સંપ્રદાયમાં ઘણું અગત્યનું છે કારણ કે રસ થકી જ કાવ્ય જીવંતતા ને પામે છે આદિ કાવ્ય રામાયણમાં પણ વાલ્મીકિ નો લોક બનીને પ્રગટ થયો છે એટલે કે થાય ભાવ વિભાગ વ્યક્તિની અંદર પ્રથમથી જ પડેલો હોય છે ફક્ત એક ઉદ્દીપક થી બહાર આવે છે માટે જ વિશ્વનાથ પણ કહે છે કે

            वाक्यम रसात्मकं कावयम ।

2. અલંકાર સંપ્રદાય :

કાવ્યશાસ્ત્રના પ્રારંભિક યુગના કવિઓ કાવ્યમાં અલંકાર નું મહત્વ ઘણું દર્શાવે છે. આચાર્ય ભામહ આ સંપ્રદાયના પ્રણેતા છે. આ સિવાય દંડી, રુદ્રટ, વિશ્વનાથ વગેરે અલંકારવાદી આચાર્યો છે. ભામહ દર્શાવે છે કે અલંકાર  જ કાવ્ય નો પ્રાણ તત્વ છે કારણ કે કાવ્ય ગમે તેટલું સુંદર હોય તો પણ અલંકાર વગર શોભતું નથી તેના માટે ભામા કહે છે કે જેમ સ્ત્રીનું મુખ ગમે તેટલું સુંદર હોય તો પણ અલંકાર વગર શોભતું નથી તેનું કાવ્ય પણ અલંકાર વગર શોભાયમાન થતું નથી શબ્દાલંકાર અને અર્થાલંકાર બંનેના મહત્વને સ્વીકારે છે, તો વળી રસવત અલંકાર ને પણ સ્વીકારે છે. આચાર્ય મમ્મટ અલંકારવાદી આચાર્ય છે, જ પરંતુ અલંકાર ની અનિવાર્યતા કાવ્યમાં છે જ એવું નથી એટલે કે ક્યારેક અલંકાર ન હોય તો પણ ચાલી શકે અલંકારો તો કાવ્યની શોભા વધારનારા ધર્મ કે ગુણો છે. આથી મમ્મટ કહે છે કે,

              अनडुकुति पुनः कयापि।
ક્યારેક અલંકાર ન હોય તો પણ ચાલે. માટે અહીં કાવ્યના આત્મતત્ત્વ તરિકે અલંકાર ગણી શકાય નહીં એવું મમ્મટ સિવકારે છે.

અલંકાર ના પ્રકારો

ઉપમા અલંકાર
ઉત્પ્રેક્ષા અલંકાર
શ્ર્લેશ અલંકાર
રૂપક અલંકાર
અપુહનતિ અલંકાર
વિભાવના અલંકાર
વિશેષયોકિત અલંકાર

साधम्यॅमुपमा भेदे ।
અથૉત ભેદ હોવા છતા સાધમ્યૅ હોય તેને ઉપમા અલંકાર કહેવાય છે.
ઉદાહરણ તરીકે
दमयन्तयाः मुखं चंद्र इव सुन्दरं अस्ति।
અથાૅત દમયંતી નુ મુખ ચંદૃ જેવુ સુંદર છે. ઈવ એ ઉપમા પ્રતિપાદક શબ્દ છે.


3. રીતિ સંપ્રદાય - વામનમુનિ

આઠમી સદીમાં થયેલા આચાર્ય વામન રીતિ સંપ્રદાયના પુરસ્કર્તા છે. તેમણે काव्यालंकार सुत्रवुति નામનો ગ્રંથ આપ્યો છે. જે રીતિ સંપ્રદાયને પરિપોષે છે. રીતિ વિશે વાત કરતાં વામન કહે છે કે, रीतिरातमा काव्यसय।એટલે કે રીતિ કાવ્યનો આત્મા છે. તેઓ આગળ વધારતા રીતિને વ્યાખ્યાયિત કરતાં કહે છે કે, विशिष्टपदरचना रीतिः। विशेषो विशेषो गुणात्मा। એટલે કે વિશિષ્ટ પદરચના એ રીતિ છે. અને રીતિએ ગુણનુ વિશિષ્ટ સ્વરૂપ છે. વામનાચાર્ય વૈદેભી, ગૌંડી અને પાંચાલી એ ત્રણ મુખ્ય રીતિ તરીકે સ્વીકારે છે. અને લાઠી તેમજ માગધીને ગૌણ તરીકે સ્વીકારે છે. ભામનાઆચાર્ય અલંકાર ની અપેક્ષા એ રીતિ ને મહત્વ આપે છે. અને રીતિ અંતર્ગત ગુણ જ મુખ્ય છે. એ સ્વીકારે છે કે અલંકાર ને કાવ્યના બહિરંગ સાથે સંબંધ છે. જ્યારે રીતિને અંતરંગ સાથે સંબંધ છે. આથી કાવ્યમાં તેનું મહત્વ ઉત્કૃષ્ટ છે. એવું વામન માને છે.

4. વક્રોક્તિસંપ્રદાય

 આચાર્ય કુંતક આ સંપ્રદાયના પ્રણેતા છે. તેમને.कतिजीवितम નામનો ગંથ સાહિત્ય શાસ્ત્રને આપ્યો છે. તે કહે છે કે કાવ્યમાં છે કંઈ અર્થ સ્પષ્ટ કરવામાં આવે છે . તે રોજબરોજની ક્રિયાઓ કે બિહારની જેમ સીધો પ્રગટ કરવામાં આવતો નથી કાવ્યને ચમત્કૃતિ જનક બનાવવા માટે વક્રોક્તિ અનિવાર્ય તત્વ છે. પરંતુ કુંતક કહે છે કે જો વક્રોક્તિ અલંકાર જ હોય આચાર્ય એક અલંકાર જ ગમે છે પરંતુ કોણ કહે છે કે ક્રોક્તિ નામના alaga સંપ્રદાયની આવશ્યકતા નથી આમ આચાર્ય કુન્દ કાવ્ય તત્વ તરીકે વપરાતી સ્વીકારે છે

5.ધ્વનિસંપ્રદાય  આચાર્ય આનંદવધૅન

ધ્વનિસંપપ્રદાયના પુરસ્કર્તા આચાર્ય આનંદવધૅન છે. તેમને ધ્વન્યાલોકમાં ધ્વનિ વિષયક ચર્ચા કરી છે. કાવ્યશાસ્ત્રના ઇતિહાસમાં આ સંપ્રદાયનું મહત્વ ખૂબ વિશેષ રહેલું છે. આનંદવર્ધન કહે છે કે काव्यास्यात्मा ध्वनि।એટલે કે ધ્વનિ જ કાવ્ય નો આત્મા છે. ધ્વની સંપ્રદાયના અન્વયો માને છે કે શબ્દ, અર્થ, ગુણ  અલંકાર વગેરે બાહ્યય તત્વ છે. જ્યારે ધ્વની અંતરંગ તત્વ છે. જેમ લાવણ્યમયી યુવતી મા  લાવ્ણય મનને પ્રસન્ન કરે છે. પણ આ લાવ્ણય શું છે?  તે સમજી શકાતું નથી. જે જુદા જુદા તત્વથી નિરપેક્ષ એવું કોઈ તત્વ છે. તેજ ધ્વનિ છે. મહાકવિની વાણીમાં રહેલુ વિલક્ષી તત્વ તે જ ધ્વનિ છે. ધ્વનિ એ પ્રતિયમાન અથૅથી વ્યક્ત થાય છે. અને તેને જ કાવ્યમાં ઇષ્ટ મનાયો છે. આ પ્રતિયમાન અથૅ જ રસ તરીકે ધ્વનિ રૂપે પ્રગટે થાય છે. જે વાક્યાથૅથી તદૃન ભિન્ન છે અને તેને કાવ્યપ્રકાશ બાદ મમ્મટે પણ સ્વીકાયૅ છે.

શબ્દની ત્રણ શક્તિઓ

શક્તિ.                     શબ્દ.                  અથૅ

અભિધા                  વાચક                  વાચ્યાથૅ

લક્ષણા                    લક્ષક                  લક્ષયાથૅ

વ્યંજના                   વ્યંજક                 વ્યંગ્યાથૅ

1. અભિધા :

વાચક શબ્દ અભિધા દ્વારા મુખ્યાથૅ આપે છે. સામાન્ય રીતે રોજબરોજના વ્યવહારમાં આપણે જે અર્થ વ્યક્ત કરતા હોય તેને માટે સમર્થ શબ્દનો પ્રયોગ સીધો કરતા હોઈએ છીએ જેમકે આ મારા પપ્પા છે અહીં શબ્દનો અર્થ સીધે સીધો જ મળે છે માટે તે  શબ્દની અભિધા શક્તિ છે.

2. લક્ષણા

કેટલાક વ્યવહાર માં રૂઢીને કારણે એવા શબ્દ પ્રયોગ કરીએ છીએ કે જેનો અર્થ તેના મુખ્ય અર્થ કરતા જુદો જ નીકળતો હોય દાખલા તરીકે મારુ ઘર સ્ટેશન પર છે. આ વાક્યનો સીધો અર્થ ઘર પર સ્ટેશન પર હોવાનો છે. પરંતુ વ્યવહારમાં સ્ટેશન પર કોઈનું ઘર સંભવી શકે નહીં પરિણામે પરંપરા અથવા રૂઢીથી  આપણે તેનો અર્થ સ્ટેશનની નજીક એમ સમજીએ છીએ આવો જ અર્થ પ્રાપ્ત થાય તે લક્ષ્યાર્થ કહેવામાં આવે છે.

3. વ્યંજના

વક્તા જે કાંઈ બોલે છે ત્યારે આમ કહેવા પાછળ વક્તા નો કોઈ આશય હોય છે જેને વ્યંગ્યાથૅ રૂપે પ્રાપ્ત થતા વ્યંજના શક્તિ અને વ્યંજક શબ્દ કહેવાય છે.

6. ઔચિંત્ય સંપ્રદાય ક્ષેમેન્દ્ર આચાર્ય

 આચાર્ય ક્ષેમેન્દ્ર આ સંપ્રદાયના પુરસ્કર્તા છે. અને તેમને ઔચિંત્યનો વિચાર ચર્ચા નામનું પુસ્તક લખ્યું છે. તેઓ કહે છે કે કાવ્ય સૌંદર્ય નુ રહસ્ય શું છે તેનો ઉત્તર આપતા ક્ષેમેન્દ્ર કહે છે કે, કાવ્યની સુંદરતા નુ રહસ્ય ઔચિંત્યનો ત્યાગ કરવો એ જ કવીકમૅ નથી પણ પોતાની કૃતિમાં ઔચિંત્યની માવજત કરવી એ કવિકમૅ અને કવિધર્મ છે.

કાવ્યને ચિરંજીવી કે અમર બનાવવું હોય તો કાવ્યમાં ઔચિંત્ય હોવુ જોઈએ ઔચિંત્ય પૂણૅ રસ, અલંકાર, ધ્વનિ વગેરે તમામનો સમન્વય કાવ્યમાં હોવો જોઈએ. ક્ષેમેન્દ્ર કહે છે કે જેમ પગનુ ઝાંઝર ગળામાં ધારણ ન કરી શકાય કે ગળાનો હાર કટીમેખલા તરીકે વાપરી ન શકાય તેમ દરેક વસ્તુનો ઔચિંત્ય પૂણૅ જ પ્રયોગ થવો જોઈએ. આમ, આચાર્ય ક્ષેમેન્દ્ર સમન્વયકારી આચાર્ય તરીકે જોવા મળે છે.

સંસ્કૃત સાહિત્યશાસ્ત્રીઓએ કાવ્યના અનેક વિષયોની ચર્ચા કરી છે.